WIG Craft and Ekranoplan/Крылатые наземные аппараты и экранопланы

Издание на английском языке
The book is dedicated to the Wing-in-Ground effect (WIG) technology and its potential in the field of high-speed water transport. It examines the development of various highly efficient marine vessels, such as air bags and hydrofoils, and discusses the challenges these vessels face when reaching high speeds in normal marine conditions. The author describes the historical context, starting with early experiments in the early 20th century and ending with significant achievements made by Russian engineers in the 1960s, such as the creation of an ekranoplane. The book explains how WIG vessels use the effect of proximity to the water surface to increase lift and reduce drag, which allows them to reach higher speeds with less exposure to waves. Technological innovations such as lift-enhanced structures are also considered, and safety issues are discussed, which led to the development of recommendations from the International Maritime Organization for the safe operation of WIG vessels. The book highlights the need for further research and practical application of this technology in order to confirm its capabilities and create new forms of transport. Ultimately, the work is an educational resource for engineers, students, and researchers interested in WIG technologies, and seeks to draw attention to this promising field at the intersection of aviation and marine engineering.

Contents
1 Wings in Ground Effect
Introduction
Marine Transport and WIG Development
Alternative Technologies
The Hydrofoil
The SES
The Hovercraft.
Ground Effect for Higher Service Speed
Some WIG Technical Terms
Ground Effect
Dynamic Air Cushion
Static Air Cushion.
Basic Principles of Ground Effect
Types of WIG
Classic WIG
PARWIG
PARWIG Attributes
PARWIG Limitations
Military Applications
Civil Applications.
Dynamic Air Cushion Craft (DACC)
DACC Characteristics
DACC Applications
Dynamic Air Cushion Wing-in-Ground Effect Craft (DACWIG)
DACWIG Attributes
DACWIG Applications
2 WIG Craft Development
Introduction
Russian Ekranoplan Development
KM or “Caspian Sea Monster”
UT-1
Orlyonok and Lun
Orlyonok’s Accident
The Development of Lun
Key to Fig
Second-Generation WIG
Design Studies for Large Commercial Ekranoplan in Russia
Volga-2
Recent Small Craft Designs
Ivolga
Amphistar
Technical Data Summary for Russian WIG Craft
WIG Development in China
CSSRC PARWIG Craft
CASTD PARWIG
DACWIG Craft Developed by MARIC
The Conversion of “SWAN”
WIG Developments in Germany
Tandem Airfoil Flairboats (TAF)
Lippisch
Hoverwing
WIG in the United States
WIG in Australia
Sea Wing
Radacraft
Flightship
Concluding Observations
3 Longitudinal Force Balance and Trim
Introduction
Operational Modes
Running Trim
Centres of Effort and Their Estimation
Introduction
Longitudinal Centres of Forces Acting on WIG Craft
Centre of Buoyancy (CB)
Centre of Hydrodynamic Force Acting on Hull and Side Buoys
Centre of Static Air Cushion Pressure (CP)
Centre of Aerodynamic Lift of a Single Wing Beyond the GEZ
Centre of Lift of WIG Main Wing with Bow Thrusters
in Ground Effect Zone
Centre of Lift of a Whole WIG Craft Operating in GEZ
Influence of Control Mechanisms on Craft Aerodynamic Centres
Longitudinal Force Balance
Condition for Normal Operation of a WIG in Various
Operation Modes
Inherent Force-Balance Method
Controllable Equilibrium Method
Handling of WIG During Take-Off
4 Hovering and Slow-Speed Performance
Introduction
Hovering Performance Requirements
Manoeuvring and Landing
Low-Speed Operations
Hump Speed Transit and Take-Off into GEZ
Seakeeping
PARWIG Theory from the970s
Static Hovering Performance of DACWIG and DACC
Introduction
Configuration of a DACC or DACWIG
Static Hovering Performance of DACC and DACWIG
Measures for Improving Slow-Speed Performance
Inflatable Air Bag
Skirt
Laminar Flow Coating on the Bottoms of Hull and Side Buoys
Hard Landing Pads
5 Aerodynamics in steady Flight
Introduction.
Airfoil Fundamentals.
An Experimental Investigation of Airfoil Aerodynamics
Nomenclature
Basic Model
Model Tests
Discussion
Drag
Lift-Drag Ratio
Pitching Moment
Conclusion
WIG Aerodynamic Characteristics
Factors Influencing WIG Aerodynamic Characteristics
Bow Thruster with Guide Vanes or Jet Nozzle
Special Main-Wing Profile
Aspect Ratio
Other Measures
6 Longitudinal and Transverse Stability
Introduction
Forces and Moments
Pitching Centres
Pitch Stability Design Criteria
Height Stability Design Criteria
Main-Wing Airfoil and Geometry
Influence of Flaps
Tailplane and Elevators
Centre of Gravity
Influence of Ground Effect on Equilibrium
Influence of Bow Thrusters with Jet Nozzle or Guide Vanes
Automatic Control Systems
Stability Analysis
Static Longitudinal Stability in and Beyond the GEZ
Static Longitudinal Stability of an Aircraft and a WIG
Operating Beyond the GEZ
Basic Stability Equation
Wing Pitching Centre
Pitching Pitching Centre
Flying Height Pitching Centre
Estimation of Balance Centres
Static Longitudinal Stability Criteria
Requirements for Positive Static Longitudinal Stability
Static Transverse Stability of DACWIG in Steady Flight
WIG Operating in Weak GEZ
Transverse Stability Criteria
Transverse Stability at Slow Speed
Transverse Stability During Turning
PARWIG Transverse Stability
Dynamic Longitudinal Stability over Calm Water
Basic Assumptions
Basic Motion Equations
Transient Stability During Transition Phases
7 Calm Water Drag and Power
Introduction
WIG Drag Components
WIG Drag Before Take-Off
Hump Drag and Its Minimisation
Estimation of the Craft Drag Before Take-Off
WIG Drag After Take-Off
Drag of WIG After Take-Off
Powering Estimation for WIG
Performance Based on Wind-Tunnel Test Results of Model with Bow Thrusters in Operation
Estimation of WIG Total Drag
Drag Prediction by Correlation with Hydrodynamic Model Test Results
Influences on Drag and Powering Over Calm Water
Hull-Borne Mode
Transit Through Main Hump Speed (Fn =-4)
During Take-Off (Fn =-8)
Flying Mode
8 Seakeeping and Manoeuvrability
Introduction
Differential Equation of WIG Motion in Waves
Coordinate Systems.
Basic Longitudinal Differential Equations of DACWIG
Motion in Waves
Seakeeping Model Tests
Manoeuvrability and Controllability
WIG Control in Flight
The Influence of a Wind Gust on the Running Trim of WIG in Steady Flight
Nonlinear Analysis of WIG Motion
Special Cases of Craft Motion
Manoeuvring in Hull-Borne Mode
Take-Off Handling in Waves
Turning Performance.
Operation of WIG Craft in Higher GEZ
9 Model Tests and Aero-hydrodynamic Simulation
Introduction
Experimental Methodology
Static Hovering Experiments on a Rigid Ground Plane
Model Tests in a Towing Tank
Model Experiments in a Wind Tunnel
Radio-controlled Model Tests on Open Water and Catapult
Model Testing Over Ground
WIG Model Scaling Rules
Scaling Parameters for WIG
Reynold’s Number
Euler Number (H(/) and Relation to Cushion Pressure Ratio
Wind-Tunnel Testing
Bow Thruster or Lift Fan Non-dimensional Characteristics of DACC and DACWIG
Froude Number, Fn
Weber Number, We
Other Scaling Terms for Towing Tank Test Models
Structural Simulation
Scaling Criteria
Model Test Procedures
10 Structural Design and Materials
Introduction
Design Loads
Waterborne and Pre-take-off Loads
Take-Off and Landing Loads
Ground-Manoeuvring Loads
Flight Loads
Impact and Handling Loads
Design Approach
Metallic Materials
Composite Materials
Sandwich Construction
Fatigue, Damage Tolerance and Fail-Safe
WIG Structural Design Concepts and Considerations
Basic Design Considerations
11 Power plant and Transmission
Introduction
WIG Power Plant Type Selection
Internal Combustion Engines
Turbofan/Turboshaft/Turboprop Engines
WIG Application Special Requirements
Marinisation
Altitude Operations
Power Plant Installation Design
Pylon/Nacelle Installation
Engine and System Cooling
Internal Systems Installation
Water Spray
Engine and System Cooling
Ice Protection
Transmission Systems
Drive Shaft
Transmission
12 Lift and Propulsion Systems
Introduction
Power-Augmented Lift
Independent Lift Systems
Propulsion Systems
Propeller and Ducted Fan Characteristics
Turbofan System
Integrated Lift/Propulsion System
Propulsor Selection and Design
13 Concept Design
Introduction
General WIG Application Issues
Technical Factors
Operational Factors
WIG Subtypes and Their Application
WIG Preliminary Design
Design Sequence
Functional Specification for a WIG
Design Requirements
Safety Codes for WIG Craft
Basic Concepts
Supplementary Safety Criteria for DACWIG
Setting Up a Preliminary Configuration
Procedure for Overall Preliminary Design
Determination of WIG Aerodynamic and Hydrodynamic
Characteristics
WIG Detailed Design
Postscript
Glossary
References and Resources
Subject Index